GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH LETTERS, VOL. 37, L15704, 5 PP., 2010
doi:10.1029/2010GL043181

As changes in the pH are becoming apparent from ocean acidification, it is important for scientists, and the public, to understand how these numbers will drop over the coming decades. Using a simple ocean carbon cycle model (SCM), Bernie and his team examine how pH levels will fall by 2100. The SCM in the study incorporates terrestrial carbon cycle models, climate models, and characteristics of the ocean, such as alkalinity, and nitrate availability.  Bernie then examines different mitigation scenarios, looking at when the mitigation efforts begin and how strong the efforts are. Bernie and colleagues find that with current rates,  pH levels would decrease to between values of 7.67 and 7.81 by 2100, however an aggressive mitigation approach starting by the year 2016 would only cause a decrease to 8.02. These results are significant as they tell scientists and the public that mitigation efforts will prove effective compared to not taking any action against ocean acidification.

The Comparative Politics of Carbon Taxation 10.1146/annurev.lawsocsci.093008.131545 (2010)

Kathryn Harrison, a professor of political science at the University of British Columbia, believes carbon taxes offer significant advantages compared to a cap-and-trade system to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. She looked at the experience of Finland, Denmark, Germany and Canada to determine the conditions where carbon taxes are politically practical. In her opinion, carbon taxes’ advantages include transparency, predictability of costs, ease of implementation, and application to small and large sources. The price certainty of carbon taxes can encourage business investment to develop and adopt low carbon technologies. Recycled revenue carbon taxes are the most economically efficient. Revenues can be used to reduce payroll or income taxes that usually discourage productivity. The carbon tax is more effective than just an energy tax because the level of taxes depends on the amount of carbon in the fuel whereas an energy tax taxes all fuels at the same rate. Overall, Kathryn Harrison thinks the carbon tax is more beneficial to the goal of reducing carbon emissions, but only if it is applied to all types of fossil fuels without exemptions.

Global Change Biology Volume 17,  pages 2980-2986 (2011)

Under lead author Maud C.O. Ferrari, a group of scientists performed experiments on the effects of increased ocean acidity on the antipredatory responses of four species of damselfish (Pomacentrus amboinensis, Pomacentrus chrysurus, Pomacentrus nagasakiensis, and Pomacentrus moluccensis). All four species showed decreased antipredatory responses in acidified waters, but the range of loss of responses varied greatly, from 30% to 95%.  Additional testing on P. chrysurus showed an increase of five to seven times normal in fatality by predation of larvae raised in predicted future acidified environments.  All experiments occurred in November and December, 2009, at the Lizard Island Research Station on the Great Barrier Reef off the coast of Australia.  The seawater used for the experiment was pumped directly from the ocean, and the fish used for the experiment were all freshly-caught juveniles.

Talmage, S. C., & Gobler, C. J. (2010). Effects of past, present, and future ocean carbon dioxide concentrations on the growth and survival of larval shellfish. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107(40), 17246. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/757190173?accountid=10598

Anthropogenic CO2 has found its way into the world’s oceans, thereby decreasing pH levels. As a result, the growth of marine organisms, especially those with CaCO3 shells, is being negatively affected. The School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences at Stony Brook University has conducted experiments that examine the effects of the ocean’s past, present, and future (21st and 22nd centuries) CO2 concentrations on the growth of larvae of two species of bivalve shellfish (Mercenaria mercenaria and Argopecten irradians). For these species, the CaCO3 shells, serving as lines of defense for larvae and providing physical stability for fragile organs, are so vital. Larvae of both species were grown under near preindustrial CO2 concentrations and modern day CO2 levels. The results show that for the former, growth and metamorphosis rates and survival and lipid accumulation rates were higher in comparison to the latter group of larvae. Thus ocean acidification during the past 200 years may be inhibiting the survival of larval shellfish.

Science 18 January 2008:
Vol. 319 no. 5861 p. 285
DOI: 10.1126/science.1151493

Economics and Climate Change

Climate change and pollution are the definitive issues of the current era. The changes to our atmosphere and ocean, such as warming by 2 degrees celcius and a foot of sea level rise in this century are minimal estimates of the consequences of current actions.

One of the questions is whether it would makes more sense committing a relatively large amount of money to try to reduce future global warming by suppressing carbon emissions or spending a smaller amount to deal with many of the problems that currently afflict humans and the environment.

Most likely the best option is a moderate plan, spending medium sums in order to regulate emissions now and build up to a reversal project with higher expenditures.

The aspect of money in combating climate change and it’s effects is an important aspect and should gain more attention.

Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 388, 235-242 (2009)

Increased atmospheric CO₂ concentrations may pose a greater threat to some species of fish than previously predicted because of the combined effects of ocean acidification and increased temperature.

Philip Munday at James Cook University and his colleagues tested the aerobic scope (resting and active O₂ consumption) of two species of Australian coral reef fishes, Ostorhinchus doederleini and O. cyanosoma, in waters that modeled 2100 projections for temperature and pH.

In both species, aerobic scope declined over 30% in both above-average temperatures (29 to 32^oC) and in acidified water (pH 7.8 and ~1000 ppm CO₂). Mortality rates increased dramatically above 33^oC.

Reduced aerobic capacity in tropical fish species will likely affect feeding, growth and reproduction, threatening the stability of fish populations. Compounded effects of increased temperature and increased pH on non-calcifying marine organisms had been largely unknown, but this study indicates that some fish populations could be at significant risk if carbon emissions continue at the current rate.

Marine Policy
Volume 34, Issue 3, May 2010, Pages 367-374

doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2009.08.006

How is the the world’s oceans related to economics? How can an assessment of an economy prevent unprecedented impacts and help mitigate many factors that contribute to ocean related problems? J.T Kidlow, The National Ocean Economics Program, and A. Mcllgorn, The University of new England and Southern Cross University, have researched the importance of estimating the ocean as a contributor to modern economies.  Until 1990, many nations have not formally conducted an evaluation of the effects the ocean has on its economy. Kidlow conducted an evaluation of ocean industry sectors, based off APEC’s industry sectors, and concluded that the U.S.A’s GDP, is directly effected from the following ocean industries: oil and gas; fisheries/living resources; shipping; marine construction; and marine tourism. Kudlow reasearch in 2009, based off data in 2004,  list that the ocean is 138billion dollar contributor to the U.S economy, not including environmental and ecosytem stocks that arent direct goods and services. Kudlow presents data that could be useful to policy makers in the determination of ocean and marine ecosystem preservation.

Long-term effect of coral transplantation: Restoration goals and the choice of species.

Journal of Theoretical Biology 280 (2011) 127–138

As the health of many coral reef ecosystems is declining, coral reef restoration is growing increasingly important. A common method of restoration is transplantation, or the transference of healthy coral to failing reef communities. However, research conducted by Soyuka Muko and Yoh Iwasa provides evidence that in some cases, transplantation can be detrimental to restoration efforts. When fast-growing coral was introduced to a population of Pocillopora, an endangered coral species with limited larvae dispersal, the native Pocillopora population was unable to recover and was replaced by the new coral species over the long-term. Such a result would lower the biodiversity of a community and make it more susceptible to collapse. Muko and Iwasa demonstrate that the benefits of a transplantation can be roughly ensured by assessing available larvae supply from existing adult specimen and by using a mathematical model to calculate an appropriate transplanted-coral density. They suggest that the potential of transplantation should be carefully evaluated case-by-case in order to avoid unwanted results.

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 107. 47 (Nov 23, 2010)

Peter Köhler and Dieter A. Wolf-Gladrow from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research and Jens Hartmann from the Institute for Biogeochemistry and Marine Chemistry conducted research on the effects of olivine (Mg₂SiO₄) on ocean acidity. It was already accepted that the addition of olivine to the ocean could reduce carbon dioxide concentration. The olivine reacts with carbon dioxide and water to form, among other products, bicarbonate ions, lowering the concentration of carbon dioxide. The ideal locations for olivine weathering are humid and tropic areas. This study, however, found that various factors in the oceans could lower the proposed efficiency of the reaction by 20%. Such factors include the preexisting concentrations of silicate and carbonates and the size of the olivine particles. Another newly-discovered potential deterrent of this tactic is the potential effect on ocean alkalinity. The tactic is still considered effective compared to alternatives, but further research is necessary.